Klasa I i II - Informacja

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INFORMACJA - KLASA IIB!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Moi Drodzy!

Chyba nie do końca zrozumieliście wytyczne pracy domowej zadaniej przeze mnie w czwartek, dotyczącej referatu o królowej Eklżbiecie. Wszelkie wątpliwości omówimy w poniedziałek. Pozdrawiam, Paweł Pachnowski.

P.S.
W związku z prośbą p. Wiatrowskiej, test z rozdziału 8 został przełożony na czwartek.

Relative Clauses - Klasa I i II

How To Use A Relative Clause

Use relative clauses to provide extra information. This information can either define something (defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added information (non-defining clause).

Relative clauses can be introduced by:

• a relative pronoun: who (whom), which, that, whose
• no relative pronoun,
• where, why and when instead of a relative pronoun

You need to consider the following when deciding which relative pronoun to use:

• Is the subject or object or possessive of a relative clause?
• Does it refer to a person or an object?
• Is the relative clause a defining or non-defining relative clause?

NOTE: Relative clauses are often used in both spoken and written English. There is a tendency to use non-defining relative clauses mostly in written, rather than in spoken, English.

How To Use A Relative Clause - The Use of Relative Pronouns in Defining Clauses

Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses

	Person	Object
Subject	who that	which, that
Object	Ø, that, who, whom	Ø, which, that
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

• Relative Pronouns Used As The Subject of Defining Relative Clauses

Example: Children who (that) play with fire are in great danger of harm.
The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died.

Generally, who and which are more usual in written English whereas that is more usual in speech when referring to things.

• Relative Pronouns Used As The Object of Defining Relative Clauses

Example: That's the boy (Ø , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.
There's the house (Ø, that, which) I'd like to buy.

Relative Pronouns Used As A Possessive In A Defining Relative Clauses

Example: He's the man whose car was stolen last week.
They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was little known.

NOTE: It is preferable to use that (not which) after the following words: all, any(thing), every (thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing), and after superlatives. When using the pronoun to refer to the object, that can be omitted.

Example: It was everything (that) he had ever wanted.
There were only a few (that) really interested him.

How To Use A Relative Clause

The Use of Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative Clauses

	Person	Object
Subject	who	which
Object	who, whom	which
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

• Relative Pronouns Used As The Subject of Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Example: Frank Zappa, who was one of the most creative artists in rock 'n roll, came from California.
Olympia, whose name is taken from the Greek, is the capitol of Washington State.

• Relative Pronouns Used As The Object of Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Example: Frank invited Janet, who (whom) he had met in Japan, to the party.
Peter brought his favorite antique book, which he had found at a flee market, to show his friends.

NOTE That can never be used in non-defining clauses.

• Relative Pronouns Used As A Possessive In Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Example: The singer, whose most recent recording has had much success, signing autographs.
The artist, whose name he could not remember, was one of the best he had ever seen.

NOTES

In non-defining relative clauses, which can be used to refer to an entire clause.

Example: He came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a t-shirt, which was a stupid thing to do.

After numbers and words like many, most, neither, and some, we use of before whom and which in non-defining relative clauses. Example: Many of those people, most of whom enjoyed their experience, spent at least a year abroad. Dozens of people had been invited, most of whom I knew.

Verb+preposition - Klasa I i II

Verb+about
be about something - That book is about his experiences in Africa.
argue about (doing) something - The boys argued about which bus to take.
be concerned about (doing) something - I'm concerned about your grades.
be worried about (doing) something - She is worried about her exams.
boast about (doing) something - Thomas boasted about his golfing ability.
decide about (doing) something - Anna decided about her goals.
dream about (doing) something - Mark dreams about becoming a ballet dancer.
protest about (doing) something - The students protested about the invasion.
Verb+against
be against something / someone - I am against the new regulation.
insure something against something - We insured our house against storm damage.
protest against (doing) something - The students are protesting against the invasion.
Verb+at
be at something - The exhibition is at the modern art gallery.
glance at something - Can I glance at that for a moment?
guess at something - She guessed at the answer.
hint at something - My mom hinted at my present.
marvel at something - I marvel at your math abilities. be for something / someone - I'm for Mayor Martini.
Verb+for
account for something - That accounts for his success.
allow for something - I think you need to allow for misunderstandings.
apologize for something / someone - Jackson apologized for his rude behavior.
blame someone for (doing) something - I blame Janet for the broken pottery.
care for (doing) something / someone - He doesn't care for playing golf.
charge someone for (doing) something - The accountant charged him $400 for his advice.
count for something - Your good marks count for 50% of your grade.
earmark something for a use - Congress earmarked $6 million for safety improvements.
pay for someone / something - Let me pay for Tom.
Verb+from
bar someone from (doing) something - Jack has barred Jennifer from visiting his daughter.
bar someone from a place - The police barred Peter from the shopping mall.
benefit from (doing) something - Students benefit from listening to news reports on the radio.
derive something from something - He derived the meaning from the context of the sentence.
deter someone from (doing) something - Please deter your children from walking across busy avenues.
differ from something - Our cheese differs from our competitor's cheese because of its superior quality.
distinguish one thing from another thing - I'm afraid he can't distinguish a British accent from a Irish accent.
distract someone from something - Please distract Tim from the television.
exempt someone from (doing) something - The judge exempted the young man from doing extra community service.
expel someone from a place - The children were expelled form school for their bad behavior.
refrain from (doing) something - Nancy refrains from smoking at work.
resign from (doing) something - Jacques resigned from his position.
result from (doing) something - The unrest results from our politicians lack of seriousness about the situation.
stem from (doing) something - The poor results stem from his lack of experience.
suffer from (doing) something - He will suffer from studying too little.
Verb+in
be absorbed in (doing) something - Peter was absorbed in reading his book.
confide in someone - I confided in Tom my desire to find a new job.
be engrossed in (doing) something - I surprised Jane who was engrossed in watching TV.
implicate someone in (doing) something - The boss implicated Peter in the crime.
involve someone in (doing) something - You should involve your children in physical activities.
result in something - His decision resulted in increased profits.
specialize in (doing) something - My daughter specializes in teaching physics.
succeed in (doing) something - Jane succeed in getting a new job.
Verb+of
accuse someone of (doing) something - His mother accused him of eating the entire cake.
convict someone of (doing) something - Johnson was convicted of armed robbery.
remind someone of (doing) something / someone - Peter reminded me of Tom.
suspect someone of (doing) something - The police suspect Agnes of breaking into the bank.
Verb+on
be on something / someone - She is on Peter to do his best.
base something on something - I base my conclusions on market research.
blame something on someone - She blames the lack of interest on the teacher's poor explanation.
concentrate something on (doing) something - They concentrate their efforts on improving the infrastructure.
congratulate someone on (doing) something - Tom congratulated Lisa on getting her diploma.
decide on something - I've decided to get a new job.
depend on someone / (doing) something - We depend on our customers' suggestions.
elaborate on (doing) something - Can you elaborate on the process?
impose on someone - The mother imposed severe restrictions on her daughter.
insist on something / someone doing something - I insist on Peter's studying every day for two hours.
pride oneself on (doing) something - I like to pride myself on my ability to concentrate.
Verb+to
answer to someone - I answer to Ms Smith.
appeal to someone - Let me appeal to you for your help in this matter.
apply oneself to (doing) something - I think you should apply yourself to getting a degree.
apply to something - He applied glue to the board.
attend to (doing) something - Chris attended to doing the grocery shopping.
attribute something to someone - Professor Samson attributes this painting to Leonardo.
be resigned to (doing) something - I'm resigned to not having any success in that field.
commit oneself to (doing) something - She committed herself to finding a new job.
confess to (doing) something - The boy confessed to stealing the apple.
devote oneself to (doing) something - I'm going to devote myself to playing the piano after I retire.
prefer one thing to another thing - I prefer roast potatoes to French fries.
react to something - He reacted poorly to the news.
refer to (doing) something - Please refer to your notes.
refer someone to someone - I referred Ken to Doctor Jones.
resort to (doing) something - Please don't resort to violence.
see to (doing) something - I'll see to those chores.
subject someone to (doing) something - She subjected her daughter to swimming lessons.
Verb+with
acquaint someone with something - I acquainted Mary with French cuisine.
associate something with (doing) someone - Susan associates chocolate with childhood.
be faced with (doing) something - She's faced with working overtime this weekend.
charge someone with (doing) something - The officer charged Mr Smith with blackmail.
clutter with something - The room was cluttered with paper.
coincide with something - My birthday coincides with a national holiday.
collide with something - The car collided with a truck and blocked traffic.
comply with something - He complies with each and every order.
confront someone with something - I confronted Vivian with the evidence.
confuse someone / something with someone / something - I'm afraid I confused you with someone else.
cram with something - My closed is crammed with dirty clothes!
deal with someone / (doing) something - I can't deal with so much overtime.
discuss something with someone - I'd like to discuss our next conference with the boss.
ingratiate oneself with someone - Ingratiate yourself with the headmaster and your life with be easy!
meet with something - The congressman met with strong opposition to his plan.
pack with something - Peter packed his case with extra brochures.
plead with someone - He plead with his teacher to give him one more chance.
provide someone with something - The instructor provided the students with a number of examples.
tamper with something - Do not tamper with this equipment.
trust someone with something - I trust Bob with all of my financial information.

must/mustn't/have to

Must / Have To - Mustn't / Don't Have to

Listed below are examples and uses of must / have to / mustn't / not have to

Examples	Usage
We have to get up early. She had to work hard yesterday. They will have to arrive early. Does he have to go?	Use 'have to' in the past, present and future to express responsibility or necessity. NOTE: 'have to' is conjugated as a regular verb and therefore requires an auxillary verb in the question form or negative.
I must finish this work before I leave. Must you work so hard?	Use 'must' to express something that you or a person feels is necessary. This form is used only in the present and future.
You don't have to arrive before 8. They didn't have to work so hard.	The negative form of 'have to' expresses the idea that something is not required. It is however, possible if so desired.
She mustn't use such horrible language. Tom. You mustn't play with fire.	The negative form of 'must' expresses the idea that something is prohibitied - this form is very different in meaning than the negative of 'have to'!
Did he have to leave so early? He had to stay overnight in Dallas.	IMPORTANT: The past form of 'have to' and 'must' is 'had to'. Must does not exist in the past.

Prepositional phrase - short reference

Prepositional Phrase Reference

Here is a reference sheet of some of the most common prepositional phrases arranged by preposition:

AT	BY	FOR	FROM	UNDER	WITHOUT
at first at least at most at times at any rate at last at the latest at once at short notice at an advantage at a disadvantage at risk at a profit / loss	by accident by far by all means by heart by chance by and by by the way by the time by no means by name by sight by now by then	for now for instance for example for sale for a while for the moment for ages for a change for better or worse	from now on from then on from bad to worse from my point of view from what I understand from personal experience	under age under control under the impression under guarantee under the influence of under obligation under no obligation under suspicion under his thumb under discussion under consideration	without fail without notice without exception without someone's consent without success without warning

Articles - Klasa I i II

The Articles

The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).

The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:

The moon circles the earth.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:

The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.

We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).
Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.

First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.

A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.

In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:

There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.

Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.

• A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
• An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
• The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
• Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.

Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:

• Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
• Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
• Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
• Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
• Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club

Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:

• The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
• Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
• Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")

When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."

Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:

idiomatic expressions using be and go	We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.) He must be in school.
with seasons	In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions	He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals	Breakfast was delicious. He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases	He's dying of pneumonia. Appendicitis nearly killed him. She has cancer (You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day	We traveled mostly by night. We'll be there around midnight.

Determiners and Noun quantifires!!! Klasa I i II

Definition

Articles, determiners, and quantifiers are those little words that precede and modify nouns:

the teacher, a college, a bit of honey, that person, those people, whatever purpose, either way, your choice

Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we're referring to a specific or general thing (the garage out back; A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great deal of confusion). The choice of the proper article or determiner to precede a noun or noun phrase is usually not a problem for writers who have grown up speaking English, nor is it a serious problem for non-native writers whose first language is a romance language such as Spanish. For other writers, though, this can be a considerable obstacle on the way to their mastery of English. In fact, some students from eastern European countries — where their native language has either no articles or an altogether different system of choosing articles and determiners — find that these "little words" can create problems long after every other aspect of English has been mastered.

Determiners are said to "mark" nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three articles, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however, explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve a modifying function. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new adjectives; the determiners (except for those possessive nouns), on the other hand, are well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number. These categories of determiners are as follows: the articles (an, a, the — see below; possessive nouns (Joe's, the priest's, my mother's); possessive pronouns, (his, your, their, whose, etc.); numbers (one, two, etc.); indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both, some, any, etc.); and demonstrative pronouns. The demonstratives (this, that, these, those, such) are discussed in the section on Demonstrative Pronouns. Notice that the possessive nouns differ from the other determiners in that they, themselves, are often accompanied by other determiners: "my mother's rug," "the priests's collar," "a dog's life."

Some Notes on Quantifiers

Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:

The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees

The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:
not much dancing
a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing

The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing

In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.

There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with non-count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has little experience in management that means that she doesn't have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin American literature that means that he has some some books — not a lot of books, but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin American literature, that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better go to the library.

Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions and negative statements:

• Much of the snow has already melted.
• How much snow fell yesterday?
• Not much.

Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:

• Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
• Most students apply to several colleges.

An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier many, thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes a singular verb):

• Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
• Many an apple has fallen by October.

This construction lends itself to a somewhat literary effect (some would say a stuffy or archaic effect) and is best used sparingly, if at all.

Used to - Klasa I i II

Uses of Used to

The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:

• We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.

The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:

• Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
• It didn't use to be that way.

Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:

• The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
• I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.

Note that Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text. Don't be surprised?

Prepositional phrases!!!!!!!!

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened.

Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while talking about it.

You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.

All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial construction].

Those words in bold blue font are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time — "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the class except me got the answer." — but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun — "During a church service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the South Pacific is where I long to be" — but this is seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.

We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in

We use at for specific addresses.
Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.

And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.

Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition
IN (the) bed* the bedroom the car (the) class* the library* school*	AT class* home the library* the office school* work	ON the bed* the ceiling the floor the horse the plane the train	NO PREPOSITION downstairs downtown inside outside upstairs uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

Prepositions of Movement: to
and No Preposition

We use to in order to express movement toward a place.
They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.

Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.

With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.

Prepositions of Time: for and since

We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.

We use since with a specific date or time.
He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.

Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS
approval of awareness of belief in concern for confusion about desire for	fondness for grasp of hatred of hope for interest in love of	need for participation in reason for respect for success in understanding of

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS
afraid of angry at aware of capable of careless about familiar with	fond of happy about interested in jealous of made of married to	proud of similar to sorry for sure of tired of worried about

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS
apologize for ask about ask for belong to bring up care for find out	give up grow up look for look forward to look up make up pay for	prepare for study for talk about think about trust in work for worry about

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.

Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions

• agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
• argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
• compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities)
• correspond to a thing, with a person
• differ from an unlike thing, with a person
• live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people

Unnecessary Prepositions

In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.

• She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
• The book fell off of the desk.
• He threw the book out of the window.
• She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
• Where did they go to?
• Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
• Where is your college at?

Prepositions in Parallel Form

(Click HERE for a definition and discussion of parallelism.) When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.

However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he played.
He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.